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PRIMITIVE  INSTITUTIONS, 


J.    W.    POWELL, 

Director  ok  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
Smithsonian  Institution. 


Read  before  the  Section  on  Legal  Education  of  the  American  Bar 
ociation,  Saratoga  Springs,  New   York,  August  ?/,  1S96. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

1'ANI'o    PRINTING    .v    PI  BLISBINO 
iUTH    HUM    - 


G/i 


ON   PRIMITIVE   INSTITUTIONS. 


MAJOR  J.  W.  POWELL. 

Director  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Smithsonian   Institution. 

The  first  civilization  was  rocked  in  the  craddle  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  knowledge  of  how  the  institutions  of  this 
civilization  were  developed  from  antecedent  barbarism  is  already 
the  acquisition  of  scholarship.  We  have  learned  of  the  origin 
of  the  city — states  or  nations  as  they  were  constituted  by  the 
consolidation  of  tribes.  The  Hellenic  tribes  gave  us  Greece 
with  Athens  as  its  central  city.  The  Roman  tribes  gave  us 
the  Roman  nation  with  Rome  as  its  central  city.  Other 
nationalities  srathered  about  other  cities  and  cities  were  involved 
whose  sites  were  beyond  the  Mediterranean  basin.  In  all  of 
this  region  we  learn  how  tribal  barbarism  was  developed  into 
national  civilization. 

It  is  also  more  or  less  thoroughly  known  in  what  manner 
tribal  culture  developed  into  national  culture  among  the  Anglo 
Saxton  tribes  of  western  Europe  through  the  agency  of  feudal 
straggles.  There  comes  to  as  from  other  quarters  of  the  globe 
many  facts  which  throw  light  ujk.h  the  development  <»f  civilized 
institutions  from  barbarism.  We  now  know  that  it  cannot  be 
rightly  understood  without  a  consideration  of  the  origin  of  the 
institutions  from  which  the  civilization  sprung;  thai  is,  we 
cannot  clearly  understand  the  evolution  of  barbarism  into 
civilization  until  we  understand  the  nature  of  barbarism  itself, 
while  we  cannot  understand  barbarism  until  the  origin  of  bar- 
barism is  understood.  Barbarism  Bprings  from  savagery.  The 
institutions  of  barbarism  are  not  primordial,  but  they  must  be 
discovered  in  savagery.  Thus  we  are  compelled  to  go  back  to 
a  culture  period  or  phase  more  primitive  than  that  revealed  in 


MI60959 


the  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome;  more  primitive  than  thai 
revealed  in  the  history  of  western  Europe*  and  more  primitive 
than  thai  revealed  in  Asia  and  northern  Africa.  It  is  this  more 
primitive  form  of  institutions  which  is  discovered  in  savagery. 
Primitive  institutions,  which  is  my  present  theme,  are  revealed 
only  in  savagery;  we  have,  therefore,  to  deal  with  the  institu- 
tions of  savagery. 

An  attempt  will  be  made  to  characterize  primitive  institu- 
tions by  explaining  the  plan  of  regimentation  and  the  concepts 
of  justice  which  they  involve.  Regimentation  in  sociology  is 
the  analogue  of  organization  in  biology.  The  accomplishment 
of  justice  in  institutions  is  the  analogue  of  function  in  the 
biotic  realm.  Often  the  terms  organ  and  function  are  trans- 
ferred from  biology  to  sociology.  This  double  use  of  the  terms 
is  a  very  general  device  of  speech,  and  is  both  legitimate  and 
useful  when  properly  understood  ;  but  organ  and  function  are 
tropes  in  sociology,  and  must  be  so  understood  lest  the  terms 
should  lead  astray.  By  regimentation  is  meant  the  grouping 
of  people  by  institutional  bonds,  while  the  accomplishment  of 
justice  is  the  social  function  or  office  which  a  confederation  or 
group  of  people  performs. 

Two  radically  distinct  methods  of  regimentation  are  found 
extant  in  the  world  and  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  past ; 
these  may  be  known  as  the  tribal  system  and  the  national  sys- 
tem. By  the  tribal  system  men  are  organized  on  the  basis  of 
kinship,  real  or  artificial.  By  the  national  system  men  are 
organized  on  the  basis  of  territory.  Thus  kinship  groups  are 
found  in  tribal  society,  territorial  groups  in  national  society. 
In  history,  transitional  forms  are  found,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  feudal.  Thus,  feudal  society  exhibits  both  methods, 
and  forms  a  connecting  link  in  the  evolution  of  tribal  into 
national  government. 

In  savagery,  families  are  organized  into  clans,  and  clans  into 
tribes,  and  tribes  into  confederacies.  Sometimes,  intervening 
units  are  discovered,  but  the  family,  clan,  tribe  and  confederacy 
are  always  discovered.     In  barbarism  families,  gentes,  tribes, 


and  confederacies  are  organized  into  a  hierarchy  of  units;  and 
there  are  sometimes  intervening  units.  The  difference  between 
the  elan  of  Bavagery  and  the  gens  of  barbarism  is  important 
and  fundamental.  The  clan  is  a  group  of  people  reckoning 
kinship  in  the  female  line,  while  the  gens  is  a  group  of  people 
reckoning  kinship  in  the  male  line.  Tribes  reckon  kinship  in 
the  male  and  female  line  together  with  affinity  and  consanguin- 
ity, and  adopted  members  of  the  tribe  are  given  artificial  kin- 
ship. When  tribes  unite  in  confederacies,  artificial  kinship  is 
established  as  a  legal  fiction,  and  the  members  of  one  tribe 
knew  the  members  of  another  tribe  and  address  them  by  kin- 
ship terms.  The  manner  in  which  this  kinship  organization  is 
elaborated,  varies  greatly  from  tribe  to  tribe,  but  radical  differ- 
ences exist  between  the  tribes  of  savagery  and  the  tribes  of 
barbarism.  In  barbarism,  patriarchies  are  found  as  concomi- 
tant with  nomadic  tribes,  but  in  savagery  the  patriarchy  does 
not  exist,  nor  are  savage  peoples  properly  nomadic,  as  nomad- 
i-ui  begins  with  the  domestication  of  animals  and  higher 
agriculture. 

Thus  the  plan  of  organizing  states  into  units  of  different 
orders  so  as  to  form  a  hierarchy  of  groups  is  denominated  regi- 
mentation ;  and  I  desire  to  explain  primitive  regimentation. 

You  are  already  familiar  with  the  plan  of  regimentation  as 
it  exists  in  national  states  and  I  need  but  briefly  to  call  your 
attention  thereto.  With  national  states,  territorial  organiza- 
tion  obtains.  People  are  divided  into  bodies  or  groups  by 
districts.  No  two  nations  are  organized  in  precisely  the  same 
manner;  though  the  general  plan  is  the  same,  i.  e.,  by  territo- 
rial boundaries,  the  specific  manner  in  which  the  organization 
is  worked  into  detail  is  ever  variable.  It  is  impossible  within 
the  limits  here  prescribed  to  set  forth  all  these  various  methods. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  take  some  one  nation  and  explain  its 
tization  as  a  type,  and  for  this  purpose  the  government  of 
the  United  States  is  chosen. 

The  grand  unit,  or  the  nation,  is  divided  into  states  and 
inchoate  states  or  territories.     States  are  divided  into  counties, 


and  counties  are  divided  into  townships  sometimes  called  towns. 
In  addition  to  the  hierarchy  of  units  thus  enumerated  there 
are  cities  and  villages  which  are  again  divided  into  wards,  and 
these  again  into  polling  districts,  while  other  districts  are 
sometimes  found.  The  various  units  thus  set  forth  are  estab- 
lished for  executive  purposes. 

This  regimentation  is  that  which  obtains  for  executive  pur- 
poses. There  is  also  another  system  of  regimentation  for 
judicial  purposes.  In  part  judicial  districts  coincide  with 
executive  districts — but  only  in  part — and  there  are  national 
courts,  state  courts,  county  courts,  and  municipal  courts. 
Again,  judicial  functions  are  differentiated,  as  criminal  and 
civil,  and  special  courts  are  organized  therefor,  while  other 
courts  are  organized,  as  railroad  commissions,  warehouse  com- 
missions, etc. 

A  third  system  of  regimentation  is  used  for  legislative  pur- 
poses, and  in  this  system  the  districts  correspond  only  in  small 
part  with  those  established  for  executive  and  judicial  purposes. 

A  fourth  system  of  regimentation  is  established  for  opera- 
tive purposes.  The  general  government  carries  on  works, 
states  carry  on  works,  counties  carry  on  works,  and  cities  and 
towns  carry  on  works. 

Still  a  fifth  system  of  regimentation  is  found,  namely,  that 
for  school  purposes. 

By  the  district  system  thus  briefly  and  imperfectly  elab- 
orated the  people  are  organized  or  regimented  into  bodies,  and 
special  functions  are  relegated  to  the  several  units.  These 
functions  are  legislative,  judicial,  executive,  administrative, 
and  educational.  It  is  by  regimentation  that  specialization  is 
accomplished.  This  specialization  is  carried  on  to  such  an 
extent  in  the  United  States  that  much  of  government  is  local 
self-government.  Every  school  district  has  special  functions, 
every  township  special  functions,  every  county  special  func- 
tions, every  State  special  functions,  and  every  municipality 
special  functions ;  while  general  functions  are  exercised  over 
all  by  the  Federal  government.     Thus,   the   people  of   the 


United  States  are  regimented  into  a  congeries  of  hierarchies 
of  units  all  woven  into  one  complex  system  as  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  and  so  adjusted  in  interdependent 
parts  as  to  secure  a  high  degree  of  specialization. 

In  addition  to  the  governmental  regimentation  there  is  a 
vast  congeries  of  societies  or  corporations  organized  for  religious, 
industrial,  educational  and  other  purposes,  all  of  which  consti- 
tute a  part  of  the  state  or  nation. 

The  regimentation  of  all  people  is  founded  upon  natural 
families,  for  there  are  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, but  such  families  have  lineal  and  collateral  lines  of  kin- 
ship involving  both  parents.  A  larger  group  than  that  com- 
posed of  parents  and  children  is  organized  in  the  crudest 
society  known.  For  this  purpose  all  of  these  persons  reckon- 
ing consanguineal  kinship  through  the  female  line  are  regi- 
mented or  organized  into  a  clan.  The  term  clan  should  always 
be  used  to  designate  this  group,  though  it  is  sometimes  improp- 
erly used  to  designate  other  groups.  The  husband  and  wife 
do  not  belong  to  the  same  clan,  but  the  husband  belongs  to  the 
clan  of  his  mother  while  the  wife  belongs  to  the  clan  of  her 
mother.  It  is  thus  that  the  first  constitutional  unit  of  organized 
society  is  based  upon  kinship  reckoned  through  the  female  line. 
The  next  unit  recognizes  kinship  by  affinity  and  a  number  of 
related  clans  that  intermarry  constitute  the  tribe.  The  term 
tribe  should  always  be  used  in  this  manner.  Curiously  enough 
all  of  the  terms  which  are  used  in  defining  the  units  of  regi- 
mentation are  often  used  promiscuously,  so  that  clan,  gens,  tribe 
and  confederacy  with  many  other  terms  which  are  synonymous 
have  a  vague  meaning  in  popular  estimation  but  in  science  we 
are  compelled  to  give  a  definite  meaning  to  fundamental  terms. 
A  clan,  then,  is  a  union  of  persons  who  reckon  consanguineal 
kinship  in  the  female  line;  a  tribe  is  compounded  of  clans 
whose  members  reckon  kinship  by  consanguinity  and  affinity, 
while  a  confederacy,  which  is  more  or  less  ephemeral,  is  a  union 
of  tribes  reckoning  kinship  as  a  legal  fiction. 


In  the  clan  the  group  is  ruled  by  an  elder  man.  But  this 
elder  man  may  or  may  not  be  tlie  oldest  living  male  in  the 
clan  ;  to  understand  this  it  becomes  necessary  to  understand 
the  method  of  kinship  naming  in  vogue  in  savagery.  In  the 
clan  the  children  of  one  woman  are  not  only  brothers  and 
sisters  to  each  other  but  also  "  brothers  "  and  "  sisters  "  to  such 
of  their  cousins  as  reckon  kinship  in  the  female  line.  Thus  if 
there  be  three  sisters  their  children  call  one  another  by  recipro- 
cal kinship  names,  as  "  brothers  "  and  "  sisters,"  but  if  there  be 
three  brothers  their  children  do  not  call  one  another  by  common 
kinship  names,  but  by  the  kinship  names  determined  through 
their  mothers,  that  is,  they  call  one  another  cousins.  Among 
the  collateral  descendants  through  the  female  line  there  are 
thus  a  number  of  persons  of  varying  ages  calling  each  other 
"  brother  "  and  "  sister,"  but  the  term  used  always  has  a  further 
significance  in  that  it  designates  relative  age,  so  that  there  is  no 
single  term  for  brother,  but  two,  one  signifying  elder  brother 
and  the  other  younger  brother ;  there  are  also  two  terms  for 
sister,  one  signifying  younger  and  one  elder.  Now,  it  is  a  law 
of  savage  society  that  one  person  must  address  another  in  the 
clan,  in  the  tribe,  and  in  the  confederacy  by  a  kinship  term, 
and  as  superior  age  always  gives  authority,  to  address  a  person 
as  elder  is  a  symbol  of  yielding  authority  and  to  address  him 
as  younger  is  a  symbol  of  claiming  authority.  There  is  a 
curious  modification  of  this  custom  which  is  a  legal  fiction.  If 
any  individual  in  the  group  of  brothers  exhibits  superior  ability 
the  clan  or  some  other  constituted  authority  takes  him  out  of 
his  kinship  rank  into  a  higher  rank.  Thus  his  kinship  name 
is  changed ;  younger  brother  becomes  elder  brother,  and  elder 
brother  becomes  younger  brother  by  a  legal  fiction  ;  or  the  son 
may  become  the  legal  father  and  the  father  the  legal  son. 

A  promotion  in  kinship  is  always  attended  with  much  tribal 
ceremony.  Among  the  Iroquoian  tribes  it  is  called  putting  a 
"spike  on  the  horns."  In  some  tribes  it  is  called,  "  adding  a 
feather  to  the  bonnet,"  in  others  it  is  adding  a  "stripe  to  the 
war  paint."     There  is  often  a  preliminary  course  of  instruction 


for  the  ceremony  which  is  performed  by  the  priest.  Important 
promotions  may  be  revoked  and  a  man  who  becomes  unworthy 
in  bis  office  may  have  his  "horns"  knocked  off  or  his  "feath- 
ers" plucked  out  or  his  "paint"  washed  away.  In  all  such 
cases  be  falls  back  to  bis  natural  kinship  name  and  state. 

Every  clan  in  a  tribe  receives  a  special  name  which  has  come 
to  be  known  as  its  totem.  Thus  in  a  tribe  there  may  be  a  buf- 
falo clan,  a  braver  clan,  a  cloud  clan,  a  wind  clan,  an  eagle 
clan  and  a  parrot  clan  with  others.  Sometimes  the  clan  name 
is  the  common  name  for  all  persons  in  the  clan,  but  more  often 
there  is  a  group  of  names  signifying  some  real  or  mythologic 
characteristic  of  the  animal  or  object  taken  as  the  totem.  For 
example,  in  the  buffalo  clan  there  may  be  a  name  signyfying 
sitting  bull,  another  standing  bull,  still  another  mad  buffalo, 
and  names  taken  from  the  mythology  of  the  buffalo  may  be 
used.  The  clan  name  or  totem  is  used  to  distinguish  the  mem- 
of  one  clan  from  the  members  of  another.  It  is  never 
used  in  the  first  and  second  persons  but  always  in  the  third 
person.  In  direct  address  the  kinship  name  expressing  rela- 
tive age  must  always  be  used.  Uncles  in  the  clan  are  ad- 
dressed as  ••fathers,"  cousins  in  the  clan  as  "  brothers  "  and 
ters.' 

If  two  or  more  tribes  unite  in  a  confederacy  the  first  thing 
to  be  considered  in  the  council  by  which  such  a  confederacy  is 
the  kinship  terms  by  which  one  tribe  shall  address 
another.  Where  two  unite  one  may  be  called  father  and  the 
other  ason,"  while  with  the  females  "mother"  and  "  daugh- 
ter "  are  used.  One  may  be  called  elder  brother,  and  the  other 
younger  brother,  with  elder  sister  and  younger  sister.  In  com- 
pounding many  tribes  in  this  manner  curious  complications 
arise. 

We  thus  see  that  a  savage  tribe  is  regimented  by  kinship 
through  devices  of  naming,  especially  for  the  clan,  tribe  and 
confederacy  and  these  names  are  so  constituted  that  relative  age 
is  always  expressed,  for  the  elder  has  rights  and  the  younger 
duties. 


As  in  territorial  organization  special  functions  are  relegated 
to  the  several  units,  so  in  kinship  regimentation  special  func- 
tions are  relegated  severally  to  the  hierarchy  of  bodies  thus 
constituted ;  that  is,  certain  offices  are  performed  by  the  clan, 
others  by  the  tribe  and  still  others  by  the  confedercy.  The 
possession  of  property  which  is  exclusively  used  by  the  indi- 
vidual is  inherent  in  the  individual,  such  as  clothing,  ornaments, 
and  various  utensils  and  implements.  Individual  property 
cannot  be  inherited,  but  at  death  is  consigned  to  the  grave. 
That  property  which  belongs  to  the  clan,  such  as  the  house, 
the  boat,  the  garden,  etc.,  inheres  in  the  corporate  person.  No 
article  of  food  belongs  to  the  individual,  but  is  the  common 
property  of  the  clan,  and  must  be  divided  by  the  authorities  of 
the  clan,  often  according  to  some  rule  by  which  some  special 
part  is  given  to  the  person  who  provides  the  food.  Thus  when 
a  hunter  despatches  a  deer  a  particular  portion  is  given  to  him  ; 
other  portions  may  be  given  to  those  who  assisted  in  its  cap- 
ture ;  all  the  rest  is  divided  according  to  the  needs  of  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  clan.  The  women  gather  fruits,  seeds  or  roots ; 
that  which  is  consumed  at  the  time  is  divided  by  like  methods, 
but  that  which  is  preserved  for  future  use  sometimes  becomes 
the  property  of  the  clan.  The  elder  man  of  the  clan  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  training  of  children  and  it  is  no  small  part  of 
his  duty  daily  to  exercise  them  in  their  games  and  to  instruct 
them  in  their  duties.  Thus  he  who  enforces  clan  custom  is  the 
same  person  who  instructs  in  clan  custom,  and  when  councils 
of  tribe  or  confederacy  are  held  he  is  the  representative  of  the 
clan  in  such  councils.  The  chief  of  the  confederacy  is  usually 
the  chief  of  one  of  the  tribes,  and  the  chief  of  the  tribe  is  usu- 
ally an  elder  man  in  one  of  the  clans.  There  are  clan  councils, 
tribal  councils,  and  confederate  councils,  chief  councilors  and 
elder  men. 

Another  organization,  which  involves  all  civic  relations, 
must  now  be  explained.  There  is  a  body  of  men,  and  sometimes 
women  also,  who  are  known  as  medicine  men  or  shamans  or 
sometimes  as  priests   who  control  all  religious  ceremonies  and 


who  are  diviners.  As  disease  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
human  or  animal  sorcery,  it  is  their  function  to  prevent,  or 
thwart  sorcery.  They  have  the  management  of  all  ceremonies 
relating  to  war,  hunting,  fishing  and  gathering  the  fruits  of 
field  and  forest.  It  is  their  office  to  provide  with  ceremony  for 
abundant  harvests,  to  regulate  the  climate  and  generally  to 
divine  and  control  good  and  evil.  The  principal  shamans  are 
men  but  all  the   people  are   united  into   shamanistic  societies. 

illy  there  is  some  determined  number  of  these  societies 
over  each  of  which  some  particular  shaman  presides,  but  he  has 
subordinates,  each  one  of  whom  has  some  particular  office  or 
function  to  perform  in  the  societies.  Sometimes  a  person  may 
belong  to  two  or  more  of  these  societies,  usually  he  has  the 
privilege  to  join  any  one  and  a  revered  or  successful  shaman 
will  gather  a  great  society,  while  a  shaman  of  less  skill  will 
preside  over  a  society  more  feeble.  Let  us  call  these  ecclesi- 
astical corporations  and  the  shamans  priests.  The  only  cor- 
porations in  savagery  are  ecclesiastical.  The  way  in  which 
they  are  regimented  and  controlled  differs  from  tribe  to  tribe 
and  there  is  a  great  variety  of  ceremonial  observances.  In  all 
civic  councils  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  take  part  and  have 
specified  functions  to  perform  and  introduce  into  civic  life  the 
ceremonies  which  they  believe  will  procure  good  fortune.  Per- 
haps the  ecclesiastical  authorities  may  be  more  powerful  than 
the  civic  authorities,  and  the  hereditary  line  of  special  ecclesi- 

i!  governors  may  gradually  overpower  the  civic  constitu- 
tion and  absorb  il   as  a   sec lary  element  in  the  ecclesiastic 

constitution,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  chief  pr 
are  men ;  the  women  play  a  very  small  part  in  ecclesiastic 
affairs.  Now  as  the  men  manage  ecclesiastic  affairs  as  chief 
priests  so  civil  affairs  are  managed  mainly  by  men  as  elder  men 
and  the  conflict  which  sometimes  arises  between  the  two  forms 
of  government  is  mainly  between  men  and  men — between  able 
elder  men  and  able  shamans:  but  sometimes  both  offices  are 
combined  in  one  person  and  the  great  elderman  may  als 
the  great  shaman. 


10 

There  are  five  fundamental  principles  of  justice:  that  is,  to 
secure  justice  five  fundamental  purposes  must  be  considered. 
Justice  is  the  establishment  of  peace.  Justice  is  the  the  estab- 
lishment of  equality.  Justice  is  the  establishment  of  liberty. 
Justice  is  the  establishment  of  equity,  and  justice  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  truth.  In  all  law,  primitive  and  modern  alike, 
these  principals  are  recognized  and  all  institutions  are  organ- 
ized for  these  purposes.  Let  us  see  what  is  the  first  recogni- 
tion of  these  principles  in  savagery. 

In  the  study  of  North  American  tribes  it  is  always  found 
that  the  purpose  assigned  and  recognized  for  the  organization 
of  that  unit  is  the  establishment  of  peace.  Two  or  more  bodies 
have  come  to  war  and  finally  agree  to  live  in  peace  and  make 
a  treaty,  and  the  terms  of  the  treaty  are  invariably  of  one 
character  if  they  unite  as  a  tribe.  If  they  unite  as  a  confed- 
eracy it  is  for  other  purposes.  This  fundamental  condition  for 
the  organization  of  a  tribe  is  that  the  one  party  agrees  that  its 
women  shall  be  the  wives  of  the  other  with  a  reciprocal  obliga- 
tion ;  and  this  is  the  characteristic  which  distinguishes  tribes 
from  confederacies.  A  body  of  people  that  is  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  marriage  is  a  tribe,  and  a  body  of  people 
organized  for  war  is  a  confederacy.  Thus  the  organization  of  a 
tribe  itself  is  the  first  recognition  of  the  principal  of  peace  in 
the  origin  of  constitutions. 

The  principle  of  equality  is  recognized  in  the  method  of 
distributing  the  spoils  of  the  arrow,  the  fish-net,  and  the  fruit 
basket,  which  is  an  equal  division  to  all  the  members  of  the 
clan.  The  principle  of  liberty  is  first  recognized  when  slavery 
is  established  and  the  means  of  obtaining  freedom  are  provided. 
and  that  is  always  the  case  in  savage  society.  Slaves  are  cap- 
tured enemies,  who,  therefore,  deserve  to  die.  They  are  not 
all  killed,  but  sometimes,  and  even  quite  often  they  are  adopt- 
ed into  the  tribe.  A  captive  cannot  become  a  member  of  the 
tribe  without  some  kinship  position,  therefore  he  must  be  adopt- 
ed by  some  woman  as  her  child,  and  adoption  in  savagery  is 
often  called  new  birth.     Now,  he  takes  the  kinship  name  as 


11 

legal  fiction;  that  is.  he  is  the  younger  to  every  living  persou 
of  the  tribe  at  that  time,  and  all  persona  subsequently  born  an 
younger  to  him  :  this  is  not  yet  slavery.  11'  the  captive  belongs 
to  a  tribe  of  hereditary  enemies  who  have  from  time  immemo- 
rial been  designated  by  some  opprobrious  term  as  cannibals, 
liars,  snakes,  etc.,  then  it  may  be  that  the  captive  is  doomed  in 
perpetual  younger  brotherhood,  and  can  never  exercise  author- 
ity over  any  person  within  the  tribe,  though  such  person  may  be 
born  after  the  new  birth  of  the  c  iptive.  This  is  the  first  form 
of  slavery.  Usually,  though  not  invariably,  the  captives  adopt- 
ed are  children.  Now  such  children  may  ultimately  become 
useful  members  of  the  tribe  and  by  their  virtues  even  win  rank 
in  kinship,  and  a  captive  may  thus  pass  from  slavery  to  free- 
dom. The  many  methods  adopted  for  conferring  freedom 
would  be  a  long  and  weary  story,  but  they  are  practically  the 
same  as  those  conferring  rank  in  kinship  ;  this  must  be  briefly 
explained.  1  have  already  shown  this  in  part.  Thesuccesful 
warrior,  hunter,  or  food  gatherer  is  rewarded  by  a  special  por- 
tion of  the  spoil  as  an  equity.  Now  he  who  has  for  a  term  of 
years  been  successful  in  any  of  the  activities  of  tribal  life  and 
who  exhibits  skill  and  wisdom  therein  is  promoted  by  giving 
him  an  advanced  kinship  designation.  One  or  more  grades 
may  be  climbed  at  one  time  and  promotions  may  follow  one 
another  rapidly,  so  that  a  brilliant  youth  may  become  an  elder 
man.  and  gray-haired  men  must  address  him  as  ••father,"  and 
he  must  even  call  his  natural  grandfather  "  grandson  ".  By 
Mich  methods  primordial  equity  is  established. 

That  which  in  modern  civilization  is  the  highest  function   of 
the  COUli  and  best    exhibits    the    talents    of  the  advocate  is  the 

discovery  of  the  facts  ;  but  ready  methods  for  discovering  the 
truth  prevail  in  savagery.  This  is  the  function  of  the  priest 
who  by  some  form  of  divinitioii  discover-  the  fact.  Thus  it  i-; 
that  justice  is  distributed  in  its  live  elements  of  peace,  equality, 
liberty,  equity  and  truth. 

Justice  is  not  always  performed  m  Bavage society,  and  it  even 
goes  awry  in  civilized  Bociety,  hence  we  have  remedies  is  aav- 


12 

ugery  and  civilization  alike.  But  sometimes  there  is  no 
remedy,  then  punishment  is  executed.  We  have  already  shown 
how  exogomous  groups  are  organized.  A  man  cannot  marry 
within  his  clan,  because  already  the  clan  has  promised  its 
women  for  the  wives  of  another  clan,  yet  the  marriage  may  be 
accomplished  and  crime  is  done.  This  is  incest.  Often  nom- 
inally the  punishment  is  death,  and  sometimes  the  law  is  exe- 
cuted, but  there  are  many  ways  by  which  justice  may  be  done 
without  inflicting  the  ultimate  penalty.  The  crime  may  be 
condoned  and  a  price  paid,  and  this  often  done  may  ultimately 
result  in  a  custom  of  marriage  by  purchase.  The  clans  of  a 
tribe  may  prosper  unequally,  and  there  may  be  more  men  in 
one  clan  than  there  are  women  in  another,  and  men  may  quar- 
rel or  even  fight  for  wives,  and  such  contest  may  ultimately  be 
regulated  by  law ;  this  results  in  marriage  by  wager  of  battle. 
If  the  woman  is  unwilling  it  may  also  require  capture,  and  this 
may  be  legalized  under  certain  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  we 
have  marriage  by  capture.  But  young  men  and  young  women 
form  mutual  attachments  which  are  sometimes  stronger  than 
tribal  law,  and  they  may  abscond  and  live  together  as  man  and 
wife.  If  they  can  successfully  maintain  themselves  in  the 
wilderness  until  a  child  is  born,  the  child  becomes  the  certifi- 
cate of  marriage  and  the  wedding  is  thus  legalized,  and  with 
this  certificate  the  crime  is  atoned.  This  is  the  only  marriage 
by  choice.  Now,  in  all  of  these  extra  tribal  marriages,  crime 
is  committed,  and  the  peculiar  methods  and  ceremonies  of  mar- 
riage by  purchase,  marriage  by  wager  of  battle,  marriage  by 
capture  and  marriage  by  choice  results  in  the  re- establishment 
of  justice  as  it  is  conceived  in  the  savage  mind.  We  have 
already  explained  much  of  personal  law  in  the  explanation  of 
the  law  of  marriage  and  the  law  of  promotion  and  reduction. 
Yet  there  are  other  subjects  worthy  of  present  consideration. 
Murder  is  punished  with  death.  The  crime  is  against  the  clan 
and  any  member  of  the  clan  may  become  the  avenger,  though 
often  some  particular  person  is  delegated  to  that  office.  The 
murderer  may  also  be  defended  by  his  clan ;  in  such  case  the 


13 

death  of  any  of  the  murderer's  clan  atones  for  the  death  of  the 
murdered  man,  but  the  murderer  may  l>e  declared  an  outlaw 
by  hia  clan,  and  any  man  of  any  clan  may  despatch  liim  with 
impunity.  In  some  cases  murder  may  be  atoned  by  substitu- 
tion, that  is,  the  murderer, may  be  expatriated,  driven  from  his 
home  and  clan,  and  thus  become  dead  to  Ids  own  people  and 
then  be  adopted  by  the  injured  family  to  replace  the  murdered 
person.  Thus  the  wife  of  the  murdered  man  may  adopt  the 
murderer  for  her  husband;  in  so  doing  he  loses  his  own  name 
and  all  relations  of  kinship  and  adopts  the  name  and  relations 
of  kinship  of  the  murdered  man.  A  quarrelsome  man  may 
embroil  clans,  and  this  may  be  carried  on  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  clan  will  declare  him  an  outlaw.  'Sometimes  murder 
is  atoned  by  the  payment  of  a  stipulated  or  customary  i 
and  usually  blood  barter  is  graded  by  rank.  Maiming  js  also 
avenged  by  the  clan,  "an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  tor  a 
tooth;"  but  it  may  be  compounded  by  common  agreement 
between  the  belligerent  clans. 

A  belief  in  witchcraft  is  universal.  A  person  suspected  may 
finally  come  to  be  universally  recognized  as  practicing  black 
art.  Such  a  wicked  person  is  killed  as  an  outlaw.  The 
wizard  may  not  have  such  a  reputation  in  his  own  clan  but 
may  be  accused  of  witchcraft  by  another  (dan  ;  if  ti 
wish  to  preserve  him  his  witchcraft  may  be  compounded. 

We  have  already  explained  the  equal  division   of  property 
in   the   clan,  the   equitable   division    made  to  the  successful 
hunter,  and  that  personal  properly  i-  inherited  by  tl 
while  clan   and   tribal    property  belong   to   a  perpetual    pel 
Theft  sometimes  but   rarely  occurs ;  when    it  does   the  object 
stolen  may  be  restored  :   when  it  cannot   he  restored  the  theft 
is  compounded  in  some  multiple  proportion.      The  only  corpo- 
ration in   -avagery  is  the  ecclesiastic,  and  crime-  against   the 
medicine  societies  are  those  which  resull  from  the  divulgil 
secrets  of  the  teaching  of  rites  by  unauthorized  persons  or  the 
exercise  id'  such  rite-  by  persons  incompetent  therefor.     I 


14 

ceedings    for    witchcraft    are   conducted   by   the   ecclsiastical 

bodies. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  plan  of  regimentation  and  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  justice  recognized  in  the  most  primitive 
tribal  states  found  among  mankind.  This  stage  of  society  is 
known  as  savagery.  Savages  are  primitive  sylvan  men;  they 
are  denizens  of  forest  and  wold  without  the  skill  necessary  to 
clear  away  the  forests  and  establish  higher  agriculture  and 
domesticate  herds  of  animals.  When  these  feats  are  accom- 
plished then  men  are  said  to  have  reached  the  stage  of  barbarism. 

Savagery  gradually  develops  into  barbarism  and  barbarism 
itself  is  represented  in  the  plan  of  regimentation  which  involves 
a  change  in  legislation,  adjudication,  execution,  administration 
and  instruction.  The  change  of  regimentation  is  represented 
by  the  extinction  of  the  clan  and  its  replacement  by  the  gens. 
The  term  gens  is  here  used  to  mean  the  unit  of  government 
herein  described  as  a  group  of  persons  wrho  reckon  consan- 
guinal  kinship  in  the  male  line. 

We  have  already  described  the  double  organization  of  every 
savage  tribe  as  civil  and  ecclesiastic  and  noted  the  conflict 
which  arises  between  the  groups  as  thus  organized.  A  power- 
ful ecclesiastical  organization  will  sometimes  absorb  the  civil 
organization,  especially  when  the  priest  and  eider  man  is  the 
same  person.  Quite  often  the  sacerdotal  office  is  hereditary, 
descending  from  father  to  son,  and  thus  grows  up  a  method  of 
reckoning  kinship  in  the  male  line  as  fundamental.  Now 
there  are  many  circumstances  in  primitive  life  which  reinforce 
this  tendency.  When  the  men  of  the  clan  have  to  go  to  the 
annual  fishing  grounds  for  the  summer  catch  they  take  with 
them  their  wives  and  children.  Such  wives  and  children  are 
no  longer  under  the  power  of  the  elder  men,  they  are  geo- 
graphically separated  from  them,  for  the  men  of  the  clan  w7ho 
work  together  are  distinct  from  the  men  of  the  other  clans 
where  each  group  fishes  by  itself.  Hunting  is  often  managed 
in  this  manner  by  clans.  Such  annual  hunting  and  fishing 
excursions  weaken  the  authority  of  the  mothers,  brothers  and 


15 

uncles  and  strengthen  the  authority  of  husbands  and  fathers. 
But  there  are  two  agencies  which  seem  to  be  even  more  potent. 
Agriculture  is  born  in  arid  lands  where  irrigation  is  necessary 

and  the  men  of  the  clan  unite  to  manage  the  stream  which  is 
used  in  irrigation  and  to  protect  the  crops  which  lie  under  the 
canals,  though  the  crops  themselves  may  be  cultivated  chiefly 
by  the  women.  Here  again  there  is  a  geographical  segrega- 
tion of  the  women  and  children  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision and  control  of  husbands  and  fathers.  Finally  animals 
are  domesticated  and  there  are  flocks  and  herds  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  men.  The  pasturage  for  one  clan  flock  is  in  one  val- 
ley and  for  another  clan  flock  in  another  valley,  for  the  property 
is  thus  kept  apart ;  and  this  also  serves  to  segregate  the  women 
from  the  men  of  their  clan  kindred  and  place  them  under  the 
authority  of  husbands  and  fathers.  By  all  of  these  methods 
clanship  is  broken  down  and  a  new  fundamental  method  of 
reckoning  in  kinship  is  developed  through  males ;  this  is  the 
gens.  Much  time  may  be  taken  in  making  these  changes 
while  the  authority  of  the  clan  is  gradually  weakened  and  the 
authority  of  the  gens  established.  Many  of  the  tribes  of 
North  America  are  in  the  transitional  stage. 

When  the  change  is  made,  councils  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
bodies  are  still  centrolled  by  men.  but  the  regimentation  is  rad- 
ically distinct.  Perhaps  the  most  fundamental  change  that 
comes  is  the  right  of  the  father  over  hi-  own  children,  especially 
in  deciding  their  marriage  relations,  for  this  right  is  not  trans- 
ferred from  clan  to  gens,  hut  from  clan  to  father.  With  this 
change  comes  another  of  fundamental  importance.  With  the 
acquisition  of  herds,  farming  lauds  and  stores  of  graiil,  wealth 
is  accumulated,  and  this  wraith  is  controlled  by  the  gentile 
patriarchs.  It  i.-  no  longer  clan  property,  but  gentile  property 
in  the  possession  ami  under  the  control  of  the  patriarch,  who 
wields  a  power  never  known  in  savagery.  The  patriarch  now 
is  always  chief  ami   priesl   and   the   practical    owner  of  tin' 

wealth:     he    thus    beCOmefl    the    master    of   the    de>tiny    of    his 

retainers.     A  particular  effect   i>  noted   in   the  council.     The 


16 

number  of  persons  who  compose  the  council  is  gradually 
reduced,  and  these  chiefs  and  councilors  are  regimented  into 
patriarchies  for  war  and  public  works,  while  instruction  falls 
mainly  into  the  hands  of  husbands  and  fathers,  and  the  wife  is 
no  longer  controlled  by  her  clansmen,  for  she  is  no  longer 
under  their  protection.  Thus  the  husband  becomes  the  master 
of  the  wife  and  children. 

In  the  clan  the  head  is  an  elder  man  and  is  an  "  uncle  "  or 
"  great  uncle  "  because  kinship  is  reckoned  through  females. 
This  is  expressed  in  Indian  tongues  by  the  aphorism  that  "  the 
woman  carries  the  clan,"  but  in  barbarism  "  the  man  carries  the 
gens."  This  is  the  first  great  revolution  in  tribal  society  ac- 
complished by  the  consolidation  of  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
few  and  the  organization  of  the  gentile  family.  The  gens  is 
ruled  by  the  patriarch  who  represents  the  family  in  the  councils 
of  the  tribe  and  the  confederacy  and  holds  all  the  property  in 
trust  for  the  gens  over  which  he  rules  by  civil  law  with  civil 
sanctions  and  ecclesiastical  law  with  ecclesiastical  sanctions.  In 
savage  society  there  is  no  written  language,  hence  the  laws  are 
classified  and  expressed  in  terms  of  kinship,  but  in  barbaric 
society  an  additional  mnemonic  and  classific  method  is  devel- 
oped, which  must  now  be  delineated  ;  it  arises  out  of  ecclesias- 
tical functions  of  government  and  ultimately  becomes  dominant 
so  as  to  modify  the  kinship  system.  In  savagery  the  world  is 
divided  into  regions  :  the  east,  west,  north,  south,  zenith,  nadir 
and  center.  This  is  continued  into  a  more  highly  developed 
form  in  barbarism  until  it  finally  becomes  the  dominant  system. 
Rarely  the  regions  are  but  four  in  number :  east,  west,  north, 
and  south ;  sometimes  the  regions  are  six ;  east,  west,  north, 
south,  zenith,  and  nadir,  but  more  often  the  seven  regions  are 
recognized.  Sometimes  the  number  four,  sometimes  the  num- 
ber six,  but  more  commonly  the  number  seven  becomes  the 
sacred  number.  This  division  of  the  world  into  regions  is 
naturally  born  in  the  usages  of  language  and  at  last  becomes 
as  deeply  woven  into  society  as  language  itself  and  the  reality 
of  the  regions  becomes  sacred,  as  language  is  held  to  be  sacred. 


17 

The  theory  of  the  regions  is  not  only  woven  into  their  Bpeech 
and  into  their  institutions  but  it  becomes  one  of  the  principal 
elements  of  picture  writing  and  is  represented  by  some  form 
of  the  cross  signifying  the  east,  west,  north,  and  south,  to 
which  are  attached  some  other  devices  for  representing  the 
zenith,  nadir  and  center.  These  world  symbols  often  govern 
methods  of  architecture.  The  theory  of  worlds  is  of  vast 
extent  and  of  profound  influence.  It  is  found  to  pervade  tribal 
society  not  only  in  America  but  elsewhere  in  the  world.  I  am 
tempted  in  this  place  to  go  to  the  Orient  for  an  example  to 
show  how  laws  and  the  maxims  of  laws  are  formulated  in 
age  and  barbaric  society,  but  I  must  premise  the  statement  bv 
explaining  one  other  method  of  formulating  laws.  The  par- 
ticulars of  law  are  often  represented  by  numbers;  one  number 
for  each  finger  of  the  hand  and  the  reciprocal  rights  and  duties 
by  the  five  numbers  represented  by  the  five  fingers  of.the  other 
hand.  Thus  by  pointing  in  the  direction  of  one  region  with 
the  proper  finger  of  the  right  or  left  hand  any  particular  law  or 
maxim  can  be  expressed  in  gesture  speech. 

I  '(iiote  from  the  Sigalowada  Sutta,  a  table  of  aphorisms 
published  by   Rhys-Davids  in  his  book  on  Buddhism,  which 
might  be  duplicated  as  a  method  of  classification  in  many  of 
the  tribes  of  North  America: 

The  Teacher  was  staying  at  the  bambu  ■j.i-'^i-  Dear  Rajagriha  ;  and  going 
out  as  u^ual  to  beg,  Bees  the  householder  Sigala  bowing  down,  with  stream- 
ing hair,  ami  wet  garments,  ami  clasped  bands,  t"  the  four  quarters  >>(  the 
heaven,  and  tin-  nadir,  ami  tin-  zenith.     <  ta  tin-  Teacher  a-kinu'  the  ■• 
why,  Sigala  says  that  he  does  this,  'honouring,  reverencing  ami  holding 
i  the  words  of  his  father.'  Then  the  Teacher,  knowing  that  thi 
■  ii  evil  from  tin-  -ix  directions,  point-  out  u<  bim  that  the  best  nay  to 
guard  the  -ix  quarters  i-  by  good  deeds  t"  men    iround  him,  t.i  hi-  p 
a-  tin-  east,  his  Teachers  a- the  south,  his  wife  and  children  as  the  west,  his 
friendl  ami    relative  as   tin-   north,   men   devoted   t"   th  lit"-1 

(whether  Brahmans  "r  Buddist  mendicants)  as  the  zenith,  and 
ami  dependents  as  the  nadir.     Then  in  an  orderly  arrangement   evid< 
intended  t>>  assisl  tin-  memory,  after  -mi.-  genera]  precepts  and 

tion  of  true  friendship,  th'-  chief  duties  men  "«<■  t le  another  an-  thus 

enumerated  under  th  heads: 


18 

1.     Parents  and  Children. 

Parents  should 

1.  Restrain  their  children  from  vice. 

2.  Train  them  in  virtue 

3.  Have  them  taught  arts  or  sciences. 

4.  Provide  them  with  suitable  wives  or  husbands. 

5.  I  rive  them  their  inheritance. 

The  child  should  say 

1.  I  will  support  them  who  supported  me. 

2.  I  will  perform  family  duties  incumbent  on  them. 

3.  I  will  guard  their  property. 

4.  I  will  make  myself  worthy  to  be  their  heir. 

5.  When  they  are  gone,  I  will  honour  their  memory. 

2.     Pupils  and  Teachers. 

The  pupil  should  honor  his  teachers 

1.  By  rising  in  their  presence. 

2.  By  ministering  to  them. 

3.  By  obeying  them. 

4.  By  supplying  their  wants. 

5.  By  attention  to  instruction. 

The  teacher  should  show  his  affection  to  his  pupils 

1.  By  training  them  in  all  that  is  good. 

2.  By  teaching  them  to  hold  knowledge  fast. 

3.  By  instruction  in  science  and  lore. 

4.  By  speaking  well  of  them  to  their  friends  and  companions. 

5.  By  guarding  them  from  danger. 

3.    Husband  and  Wife. 

The  husband  should  cherish  his  wife 

1.  By  treating  her  with  respect. 

2.  By  treating  her  with  kindness 

3.  By  being  faithful  to  her. 

4.  By  causing  her  to  be  honoured  by  others. 

5.  By  giving  her  suitable  ornaments  and  clothes. 

The  wife  should  show  her  affection  for  her  husband. 

1.  She  orders  her  household  aright. 

2.  She  is  hospitable  to  kinsmen  and  friends. 

3.  She  is  a  chaste  wife. 

4.  She  is  a  thrifty  housekeeper. 

5.  She  shows  skill  and  diligence  in  all  she  has  to  do. 


19 

4.    Friends  and  Companions. 

The  honourable  man  should  minister  to  his  friends 
1.     By  giving  presents. 
•_'.     By  courteous  speech. 

3.  By  promoting  their  interest. 

4.  By  treating  them  as  his  equals. 

0.  By  sharing  with  them  his  prosperity. 

They  should  show  their  attachment  to  him 

1.  By  watching  over  him  when  he  is  off  iiis  guard. 

2.  By  guarding  liis  property  when  he  is  careless. 
•">.     By  offering  him  a  refuge  in  danger. 

•1.     By  adhering  to  him  in  misforture. 
•").      By  showing  kindness  to  his  family. 

5.     Masters  and  Servants. 

The  master  should  provide  for  the  welfare  of  his  dependents 
1.     By  apportioning  work  to  them  according  to  their  strength. 
-.     By  supplying  suitable  fond  and  wages. 

:;.      By  tending  them  in  sickness. 

4.  By  sharing  with  them  unusual  delicacies. 

5.  By  now  and  then  granting  them  holiday-. 

They  should  show  their  attachment  to  him  as  follows: 
1.     They  rise  before  him. 
•_'.     They  retire  later  to  rest. 

3.  They  are  content  witli  what  is  given  them. 

4.  They  work  cheerfully  and  thoroughly. 

I  'hey  speak  well  of  him  (or  perhaps  properly  to  him.) 

6.     Layman   lnd  those  Devoted  to  Religion. 

The  honourable  man  ministers  to  mendicants  and  Brahmans 
1.     By  affection  in  act. 
•_'.     By  affection  in  words. 
■  '..     By  affection  in  thoughts. 
1.      By  giving  them  a  ready  welcome. 

5.  By  supplying  their  temporal  wants. 

They  should  show  their  affection  to  him 
1.     By  dissuading  him  from  vice, 
■J.     By  exorting  him  to  virtue. 
:;.     By  feeling  kindly  towards  him. 
I.     By  instructing  him  in  religion. 

5.  By  clearing  up  hi-  doubts. 

6.  By  pointing  the  way   to  heaven. 


20 

We  have  spoken  of  phratries  as  a  system  of  groups,  some- 
times found  in  savagery  and  always  in  barbarism.  We  are 
now  able  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the  phratry.  There  may 
be  many  clans  or  gentes  in  a  tribe  and  two  or  more  clans  or 
gentes  may  constitute  an  intervening  unit  which  we  call  the 
phratry.  With  the  Muskhogean,  there  are  four  phratries,  one 
for  the  east,  one  for  the  west,  one  for  the  north  and  one  for  the 
south.  With  the  Zuni,  there  are  six  phratries,  one  for  the 
east,  one  for  the  west,  one  for  the  north,  one  for  the  south,  one 
for  the  zenith  and  one  for  the  nadir.  Thus  the  phratries  are 
organized  my  mythologic  regions.  And  this  method  of  regi- 
mentation finds  expression  in  the  structure  of  the  council 
chamber,  in  the  plaza,  and  in  the  plan  of  the  village.  Here 
in  the  phratry  we  have  the  beginning  of  district  regimentation 
which  untimately  prevails  in  civilization. 

The  fabric  of  primitive  society  is  a  web  of  streams  of  kindred 
blood  and  a  woof  of  marriage  ties.  This  tapestry  is  wrought 
in  wonderful  patterns,  for  on  it  can  be  traced  the  outlines  of 
primitive  mythology.  Some  scholars  have  seen  in  the  fabric 
only  the  mythic  patterns  enwrought  and  fail  to  discover  the 
real  institutional  foundation. 

The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  was  instituted  in  1879 
as  a  branch  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  has  since  been 
maintained  by  Federal  authority.  Its  function  is  the  collec- 
tion of  data  relating  to  primitive  people,  primarily  the  Ameri- 
can Indians.  Much  material  has  been  collected,  a  part  of 
which  has  been  published  in  the  fifty  odd  volumes  of  its  reports. 
A  still  larger  body  is  in  manuscript  and  is  constantly  used  by 
the  collaborators  of  the  Bureau.  The  categories  of  informa- 
tion pertain  chiefly  to  the  arts,  institutions,  languages  and 
beliefs  of  the  Indians.  The  second  of  these  categories  embraces 
the  subject  of  primitive  law.  The  manuscript  records  relating 
to  this  subject  are  voluminous,  occupying  many  thousand  pages. 
They  have  been  made  by  various  persons  and  relate  to  many 


21 

tribes.  Sometimes  the  records  are  incomplete  and  fragmentary, 
but  there  are  somewhat  full  records  of  the  institutions  of  thirty 
or  forty  tribes.  In  addition  to  the  special  records  there  is 
much  information  concerning  primitive  institutions  in  a  manu- 
script work  now  nearly  ready  for  publication  to  be  entitled, 
"An  Encyclopedia  of  Indian  Tribes,"  which  is  arranged  in 
such  a  manner  on  several  hundred  thousand  cards  as  to  be 
readily  available. 

J.  W.  Powell. 


7  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO 

ANTHROPOLOGY  LIBRARY    i 

This  publication  is  due  on  the  LAST  DATE    j 
and  HOUR  stamped  below. 

SEP  30  1975 

JAN    6  1976 

1 

RB17-30m-10,'73 
(R3381sl0)4188 — A-32 

M160959 


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